The research, published in the journal 'Social Science & Medicine', analyzed data from the World Happiness Report and a global study on gender beliefs. The study found that countries with stronger beliefs about precarious manhood tend to have lower national happiness. Furthermore, these countries often exhibit lower Gross Domestic Product (GDP), lower life expectancy, lower social support, and a higher perception of corruption. The research was conducted by James R. Mahalik and Michael P. Harris.

Precarious manhood beliefs are based on the idea that manhood is a social status that must be earned and can be easily lost. This implies a constant need to demonstrate masculinity through behavior and achievements. The results suggest that masculinity is perceived as more fragile and socially judged than femininity. This perceived fragility creates pressure on men to prove their masculinity in public and social situations.

The study authors analyzed data from the World Happiness Report, collected by the Gallup World Poll, which includes data from 137 nations. Approximately 1,000 respondents per country report their opinions annually in this report. The study used data on happiness, GDP, social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom to make choices, generosity, and perception of corruption.

Data on gender beliefs came from a large-scale study conducted with 33,417 college students from 62 countries. By overlapping these two datasets, the researchers focused their final analysis on 59 countries. This allowed the researchers to correlate beliefs about precarious manhood with various indicators of social and economic well-being.

The results revealed that countries with more pronounced precarious manhood beliefs tended to have lower national happiness, lower GDP, lower life expectancy, lower social support, and a higher perception of corruption. However, the researchers did not find a significant relationship between precarious manhood beliefs and a nation's overall generosity or citizens' perceived freedom to make life choices. This suggests that rigid gender norms may negatively influence national economies by diverting men from essential fields and restricting women's participation in the workforce.

Furthermore, the pressure to appear tough encourages risky health behaviors, such as smoking and heavy drinking, and discourages emotional vulnerability, ultimately lowering life expectancy and eroding community trust.

The authors suggest that rigid gender norms harm national economies by diverting men from essential fields and restricting women's participation in the workforce. In addition, the pressure to appear tough encourages risky health behaviors and discourages emotional vulnerability, which lowers life expectancy and erodes community trust. The researchers also noted that precarious masculinity ideals are often exploited by authoritarian political leaders, which can deepen societal polarization and fragmentation.

The authors concluded: "This study highlights the significant societal factors associated with precarious manhood beliefs, demonstrating their detrimental links to national happiness and well-being. In an era marked by the resurgence of rigid masculinity norms, these findings underscore the need to address the cultural pressures that undermine collective welfare."

The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between precarious manhood beliefs and other important characteristics of a society. However, the correlational design of the study does not allow causal inferences to be derived from the results. Therefore, it is unknown whether abandoning precarious manhood beliefs increases happiness in a society, or if lower happiness strengthens precarious manhood beliefs.

The study authors note that it is entirely possible that economic hardship, lower life expectancy, and higher corruption in a society foster the perception of manhood as precarious. Additionally, the data on gender beliefs relied on samples of college students, which may not fully represent the broader populations within those countries.